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Religious Background

The Greek Orthodox Church dominates the religious landscape of Greece since it represents the beliefs of most citizens. The Greek Constitution recognizes the Eastern Orthodox Church as the ‘prevailing’ religion of Greece because Orthodox Christianity has maintained a deep connection with Greek national identity and historical development. The Religious Education (RE) system in Greek schools developed through the influence of Orthodox Christian teachings, which served as fundamental educational content.

The Orthodox majority lives alongside various religious minority communities. The largest religious minority in Western Thrace of north-eastern Greece consists of Muslims who number between 120–140,000 people and received official recognition through the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. The country contains various religious communities, including Roman Catholics who live in Athens and on Syros and Tinos islands, Protestants, Old Calendarist Orthodox members, newer religious groups, and a historic Jewish community of 5,000 people.

Legal Basis

The Religious Education system in Greece is based on the Greek Constitution and the education laws. Article 16(2) of the Greek Constitution states that education is a state responsibility, and its goal is to form students’ “national and religious consciousness”. This has been interpreted to mean that the state should promote Orthodox Christian beliefs in Orthodox pupils, in conjunction with Article 3, which states that the Orthodox Church is the prevailing religion. The Greek education law (1566/1985) reinforced this by stating that RE should teach the genuine aspects of the Orthodox tradition to students. At the same time, Article 13 of the Constitution ensures that there is freedom of religious belief and that no one can be forced to believe in anything, which means that RE is included in the curriculum for all, but students can opt out if they declare their religion or “religious consciousness” objection.

RE is part of the compulsory curriculum in all primary and secondary schools. Court rulings in recent years clarified and adjusted the legal framework. In 2018, the Greek Council of State (Supreme Administrative Court) issued landmark decisions (Nos. 660/2018 and 926/2018) striking down a newly introduced multi-faith RE curriculum as unconstitutional. In effect, the Council of State affirmed that RE in schools should remain predominantly denominational, teaching the Orthodox Christian faith in order to fulfill the constitutional aim of developing students’ Orthodox Christian consciousness. At the same time, the Council of State and other bodies have made clear that non-Orthodox students have a right to be exempted from RE on grounds of religious freedom. In 2019, two other Council of State’s decisions (Nos. 1749/2019 and 1750/2019) reiterated that the RE is intended for Orthodox Christian pupils and should be taught as such, while students who have “conscientious objections” due to their religion or beliefs must be allowed to opt out. If a significant number of students opt

out of RE, the state should consider providing an alternative course for them. The court hinted at introducing an alternative lesson (such as an Ethics course) so that the opt-out students have a constructive educational activity. In practice, an alternative course has not yet been systematically introduced (see more below).

RE Curriculum

The RE curriculum traditionally was confessional. It aimed to teach the doctrines and moral teachings of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Efforts to reform the curriculum to reflect a more pluralistic and educational approach were made in the early 21st century. A new curriculum framework developed in the 2010s – piloted in some schools around 2011 and officially introduced nationwide in 2016-17 – attempted to transform RE into a broader religious studies course. The curriculum then incorporated topics on Orthodox Christianity, Roman Catholicism, Protestant traditions, Judaism, Islam, and Eastern religions. It aimed to promote understanding and tolerance for religious diversity. Pedagogically, it emphasized religious literacy, representing a significant shift in goals, aligning with European trends in multi-faith religious education and the reality of increasing religious diversity in Greece’s population.

However, these changes sparked intense controversy. Theologians, some parents, and a Greek Orthodox Bishop protested that the new curriculum diluted or even betrayed the Orthodox character of RE, and they succeeded to have in 2018 and 2019 the four Council of State’s aforementioned decisions. Thus, the court effectively required the Ministry to restructure the RE curriculum back toward a confessional model.

The current curriculum was issued in 2023 (https://iep.edu.gr/el/nea-ps-provoli) and can be described as Orthodox-centered with elements of religious studies. In line with the Council of State’s decisions, the curriculum’s primary focus is on Eastern Orthodox Christianity. In three years (3rd of the High School and 2nd -3rd of the Upper High School) the students study Roman Christian denominations, Religions and Worldviews, developing students’ ability to respect religious diversity and to engage in interreligious dialogue, and to reflect on ethical questions from a faith perspective. These aims reflect a compromise between the older, more confessional approach and newer educational goals. The result is a hybrid Greek RE that tries to educate Orthodox Christians and foster tolerance at the same time. Notably, in 2025, the Ministry of Education commissioned new textbooks (three for every grade for teachers to have a choice). The Church of Greece has only an advisory role and closely monitors textbook content.

Education System and RE Provision

RE is integrated into the Greek public education system from late primary school through the end of secondary school. In primary education, the subject “Religion” (Θρησκευτικά) is introduced in Grade 3 (around age 8–9) and continues in Grades 4, 5, and 6. The weekly hours devoted to RE in primary vary by grade: currently,y the curriculum allocates 2 hours per week in 3rd and 4th grade, and 1 hour per week in 5th and 6th grade. At the primary level, RE lessons are usually delivered by the

classroom teacher. Primary teachers in Greece are trained as general educators and do not receive specialized theological training during their university studies. As a result, the depth of religious instruction in primary school can depend on the teacher’s own background and comfort with the material.

In secondary education, RE becomes a more formal academic subject. It is taught throughout lower secondary (Gymnasio, grades 7–9, ages 12–15) and upper secondary (Lykeio, grades 10–12, ages 15–18). RE is scheduled for two teaching hours per week in each grade of secondary school except the final one. The subject is typically compulsory for all students in each grade (unless they have been exempted). In contrast to primary school, secondary RE classes are taught by specialized teachers, Theologians. These educators are usually graduates of one of the country’s two Orthodox theological faculties – the School of Theology at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, or the School of Theology at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. Prospective RE teachers earn a degree in Theology and then are eligible to teach in secondary schools after any required teacher certification.

RE teachers in secondary education are civil servants hired by the state, just like teachers of other subjects. They are not appointed or paid by the Church, and in fact the Church of Greece has no formal role in teacher hiring. This point is sometimes misunderstood. RE is not confessional, but denominational, and it is not a clergy-taught or church-run class – it is part of the public school system, and teachers are accountable to the Ministry of Education. In areas with specific needs, there are a few variations. In Western Thrace, where a Muslim minority with special rights exists, teaching is done by Muslim educators (either trained in Greece or imported teachers, as per minority education agreements). In mainstream public schools outside Thrace, if a non-Orthodox religious community is sizable (for example, Roman Catholic students), sometimes arrangements are made for those students to receive RE in their faith. However, such cases are relatively rare and usually informal.

The span of years and progression of RE topics is organized developmentally in 4 spirals (3-4, 5-6 grades of primary, 1-3 of lower secondary, and 1-3 of Upper secondary) in the current curriculum (2023). In the four spirals, eight big ideas are taught: 1. God, 2. Creation – Fall, 3. People of God (Prophets – Saints), 4. Incarnation – Christ, 5. Church – Worship – Holy Bible, 6. Kingdom of God (Transfiguration, Eschatology), 7. Christian Life, 8. Religion(s) – Worldviews.

Current Developments and Debates

• Curriculum Reforms and Court Challenges: The current official curriculum (2023), which will be implemented in 2026-27 reflects the Council of State’s guidance: it is denominational (Orthodox) in nature, with carefully integrated in specific years (3 of 10), Christian denominations, religions and worldviews.
• Exemption Policy and Alternative Courses: The Ministry of Education in mid-2020 reissued the rules for exemption from RE. The new policy, now in force, allows any student (or their parents) to request an exemption by submitting a simple statement that attending the religion class conflicts with their religious consciousness, without any further explanation. This brings up the question of alternative classes. In 2021, the Institute of Educational Policy set up a committee to explore an “Ethical Education” module that could be offered to non-RE students, covering topics like philosophy and civics.
• Teacher Training and Preparation: The curriculum reform and counter-reform highlighted issues in teacher training. Greek secondary RE teachers are theology graduates, and historically were trained in Orthodox Christian theology, but also in religious studies. One notable development is the establishment of an Islamic Studies program at Aristotle University of Thessaloniki’s School of Theology starting in the 2016–2017 academic year. Newer generations of theology graduates receive basic exposure to non-Orthodox faiths and modern religious education theory, seeing value in being prepared to discuss multiple faiths and to handle a classroom that might include students of various backgrounds.
• Current Consensus and Future Outlook: The Ministry of Education, aligning with court rulings and European norms, swiftly changes the exemption procedure and reviews the RE curriculum, indicating that Greece is trying to balance its religious educational aims with respect for individual rights. A continuing area of development may be the potential creation of an alternative ethics/religion course for those not attending Orthodox RE; any concrete proposal on this will likely spark discussion and need careful implementation to satisfy all stakeholders and to preserve human rights of all citizens to have RE in schools. But Greek society diversifies (due to migration and globalisation), so the RE curriculum may gradually incorporate more material on non-Orthodox faiths, even if the core remains Orthodox. The conversation among policymakers, educators, the Church, and civil society is ongoing.

Marios Koukounaras Liagkis, 7.5.2025